An electric vehicle uses motors that draw energy from on-board storage batteries. Its range is limited by the battery capacity, which is typically measured in kWh.
A variety of factors affect the performance and driving range of an EV, including the battery temperature, road type, charging habits, and specific power consumption (like air conditioning, heaters or heated seats). Aggressive driving like rapid acceleration or hard braking uses up more energy. A full charge is needed before driving up a hill, as regenerative braking only partially replenishes the battery while going downhill. Driving through a hot or cold climate can also reduce the driving range, as can driving on rough roads and using extra accessories, such as running lights.
The battery system in an EV is driven by a microprocessor, which communicates with sensors to measure the battery’s state of health and determine how much capacity remains. It can also identify fault conditions and protect the battery pack from damage or overheating (Baudet et al., 2022).
New-generation EV batteries use advanced materials, such as nickel iron phosphate or lithium titanate. These technologies offer increased energy density and longer lifespans than older technology batteries.
However, BEV batteries still require large volumes of raw material. These batteries can also degrade over time. For example, a lead-acid battery’s lifespan can be reduced by exposure to heat and the impact of ageing, and the cost of replacing these batteries can increase. This could limit EV adoption or lead drivers to avoid purchasing an EV (McKinsey Consumer Pulse, 2025). To reduce these risks, effective recycling practices are critical for protecting the environment and reducing waste.